Runes Through Time: From Early Germanic Writing to Viking Age Symbolism and Beyond

Runes, the ancient Germanic alphabet, captivate the imagination with their connections to Vikings, magic, and a sense of mysterious power. While often romanticized, the history of runes is rich and complex, spanning centuries and evolving alongside the cultures that used them. This post offers a scholarly exploration of runes through time, from their pre-Viking Age origins as a writing system to their flourishing and transformation during the Viking Age and their continued presence even after the transition to the Latin alphabet.

I. Origins and Development of the Elder Futhark (c. 1st-2nd century CE):

The Elder Futhark, consisting of 24 runes, likely emerged from adaptations of existing alphabets used around the Mediterranean, possibly influenced by Italic scripts used by peoples interacting with Germanic tribes along the Roman frontier.[2, 4] This refutes the common misconception of runes originating as Bronze Age ideographs or possessing inherent magical properties from their inception. While some theories suggest derivation from a North Italic alphabet,[4] others propose a closer link to later Roman cursive scripts.[2] The exact process of adaptation and the specific influences remain subjects of ongoing scholarly debate, adding to the complexity of understanding their origins.

II. Primary Use as a Writing System in the Pre-Viking Age:

Numerous early runic inscriptions, found on a variety of everyday objects like combs, jewelry, tools, and weapons,[3] confirm the runes' primary function as a practical writing system. These inscriptions, often brief and formulaic, frequently consist of personal names (e.g., the inscription on the Kylver stone, Sveriges runinskrifter Ög 136[5, vol. 8]), ownership marks (like those found on the Vimose comb[3]), or short messages. The prevalence of these inscriptions on common items suggests that literacy in runes may have been more widespread than previously thought and indicates their integration into the fabric of daily life in early Germanic societies. While some inscriptions appear on objects with potential ritual or symbolic meaning, it's important to avoid assuming a solely magical purpose. Objects can carry multiple layers of significance, both practical and symbolic.

III. Hints of Deeper Cultural Significance (reginkunnr and Tacitus):

Even within this primarily practical context, tantalizing hints of a deeper cultural significance emerge. The term reginkunnr ("divine lore"), appearing on inscriptions like the Noleby Runestone (Sveriges runinskrifter Vg 181[5, vol. 4]), suggests a connection to the divine or sacred knowledge.[6] This term, predating the later Viking Age association of runes with Odin, indicates that the runes held a special cultural or spiritual significance even in their early usage.

Further, Tacitus, a Roman historian writing in the 1st century CE, describes Germanic tribes using marked sticks for a form of divination (Germania 10[1]). While some scholars connect this practice to early forms of rune casting,[4] concrete evidence directly linking these marked sticks to runes remains elusive. It's important to approach such interpretations with scholarly caution, acknowledging the limited evidence while also recognizing the potential for deeper meanings associated with runes even in the pre-Viking Age.

IV. The Viking Age (c. 793-1066 AD): A Period of Flourishing and Transformation:

The Viking Age represents a pivotal period for runes. While their use as a writing system continued, their roles expanded and diversified.

  • Evolution of the Younger Futhark: The Elder Futhark evolved into regional variations, most notably the Younger Futhark, with fewer characters (16 runes) and simplified forms.[7] This evolution reflects linguistic changes in Norse language and potentially a shift towards more symbolic or cryptic uses.
  • Runestones and Memorialization: The Viking Age witnessed a dramatic increase in the creation of runestones, large stones inscribed with runes, often commemorating individuals, their deeds, and their lineage.[5, 8] These runestones, found throughout Scandinavia and beyond, provide valuable insights into Viking Age society, language, beliefs, and artistic expression. The Jelling stones, for example, offer a glimpse into the transition from paganism to Christianity.[8]
  • Magic and Divination: Evidence from both archaeological finds (e.g., amulets inscribed with runes)[3] and textual sources (e.g., Icelandic sagas describing the use of runes in magic and divination)[9] suggests that the association of runes with these practices became more pronounced during the Viking Age. However, the precise nature of Viking Age magical practices and their relationship to runic inscriptions remains a subject of scholarly investigation. It's crucial to avoid imposing modern interpretations of rune magic onto the historical context.
  • Odin's Sacrifice and the Eddas: The 13th-century Eddas,[10, 11] though written down after the Viking Age, likely reflect and elaborate upon earlier beliefs and traditions. The story of Odin's self-sacrifice to gain knowledge of the runes solidifies their connection to magic, divination, and the acquisition of wisdom. This powerful narrative significantly shaped later interpretations of runes, influencing their use in medieval and modern esoteric traditions.

V. Beyond the Viking Age: Transition and Persistence:

With the spread of Christianity and the adoption of the Latin alphabet, the use of runes for writing gradually declined.[7] However, runes didn't vanish entirely.

  • Medieval Runic Inscriptions: Runes continued to be used in some inscriptions throughout the medieval period, sometimes appearing alongside the Latin alphabet, reflecting the complex cultural transitions of the time.[5]

  • Runic Calendars and Folk Practices: Runic calendars, blending practical timekeeping with traditional symbolism, persisted in some regions even into the early modern period.[7] Evidence also points to the continued use of runes in folk magic and traditional practices, often hidden or syncretized with Christian elements.[3] This persistence highlights the enduring cultural resonance of runes even after their decline as a primary writing system.

Conclusion:

The history of runes reveals a fascinating journey through time, from their practical origins as a writing system in early Germanic societies to their flourishing and diversification during the Viking Age and their enduring presence in later periods. By approaching the study of runes with scholarly rigor, and by distinguishing between different periods and interpretations, we can gain a more accurate and nuanced appreciation for their true significance within the context of Germanic and Scandinavian history and culture.

References:

  1. Tacitus, Cornelius. Agricola and Germania. Translated by Maurice Hutton and revised by E.H. Warmington, Loeb Classical Library, vol. 35, Harvard University Press, 1970.
  2. Elliot, R.W.V. (1989). Runes: An Introduction. Manchester University Press.
  3. MacLeod, M., and Mees, B. (2006). Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press.
  4. Williams, H. (2015). The Origin of Runes. Harvard University Press.
  5. Sveriges runinskrifter (Swedish Runic Inscriptions). (Multi-volume series, ongoing).
  6. McKinnell, J., Simek, R., and Düwel, K. (editors). (2004). Runes, Magic and Religion: A Sourcebook. Boydell & Brewer.
  7. Barnes, M.P. (2012). Runes: A Handbook. Boydell & Brewer.
  8. Sawyer, B. (2000). The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia. Oxford University Press.
  9. Clunies Ross, M. (1998). Prolonged Echoes: Old Norse Myths in Modern Society. Odense University Press.
  10. The Poetic Edda. (2014). Translated by Carolyne Larrington. Oxford University Press.
  11. The Prose Edda. (2005). Translated by Jesse L. Byock. Penguin Classics.
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